Review

Tire Road Friction Coefficient Estimation: Review and Research Perspectives

  • Yan Wang ,
  • Jingyu Hu ,
  • Fa'an Wang ,
  • Haoxuan Dong ,
  • Yongjun Yan ,
  • Yanjun Ren ,
  • Chaobin Zhou ,
  • Guodong Yin
Expand
  • 1. School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China;
    2. College of Mechano-Electronic Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730050, China

Received date: 2021-05-04

  Revised date: 2021-12-24

  Online published: 2022-06-30

Supported by

Supported by the National Natural Science Funds for Distinguished Young Scholar of China (Grant No. 52025121), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51975118, 52002066)

Abstract

Many surveys on vehicle traffic safety have shown that the tire road friction coefficient (TRFC) is correlated with the probability of an accident. The probability of road accidents increases sharply on slippery road surfaces. Therefore, accurate knowledge of TRFC contributes to the optimization of driver maneuvers for further improving the safety of intelligent vehicles. A large number of researchers have employed different tools and proposed different algorithms to obtain TRFC. This work investigates these different methods that have been widely utilized to estimate TRFC. These methods are divided into three main categories: off-board sensors-based, vehicle dynamics-based, and data-driven-based methods. This review provides a comparative analysis of these methods and describes their strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, some future research directions regarding TRFC estimation are presented.

Cite this article

Yan Wang , Jingyu Hu , Fa'an Wang , Haoxuan Dong , Yongjun Yan , Yanjun Ren , Chaobin Zhou , Guodong Yin . Tire Road Friction Coefficient Estimation: Review and Research Perspectives[J]. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2022 , 35(2) : 6 -6 . DOI: 10.1186/s10033-021-00675-z

References

[1] A Patil, D Ginoya, P D Shendge, et al. Uncertainty-estimation-based approach to antilock braking systems. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2016, 65(3): 1171–1185.
[2] W Zhao, X Qin, C Wang. Yaw and lateral stability control of automotive four-wheel steer-by-wire system. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2018, 23(6): 2628–2637.
[3] E Hashemi, M Jalali, A Khajepour, et al. Vehicle stability control: Model predictive approach and combined-slip effect. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2020, 25(6): 2789–2800.
[4] Y Wang, G Yin, Y Li, et al. Self-learning control for coordinated collision avoidance of automated vehicles. Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering, 2021, 235(4): 1149–1163.
[5] L Li, F Wang, Q Zhou. Integrated longitudinal and lateral tire/road friction modeling and monitoring for vehicle motion control. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2006, 7(1): 1–19.
[6] M Acosta, S Kanarachos, M Blundell. Road friction virtual sensing: A review of estimation techniques with emphasis on low excitation approaches. Applied Sciences-Basel, 2017, 7(12): 1–47.
[7] S Khaleghian, A Emami, S Taheri. A technical survey on tire-road friction estimation. Friction, 2017, 5(2): 123–146.
[8] M Kanafi, A Kuosmanen, T Pellinen, et al. Macro- and micro-texture evolution of road pavements and correlation with friction. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 2015, 16(2): 168–179.
[9] G Baffet, A Charara, G Dherbomez. An observer of tire-road forces and friction for active security vehicle systems. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2007, 12(6): 651–661.
[10] Y Du, C Liu, Y Song, et al. Rapid estimation of road friction for anti–skid autonomous driving. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2020, 21(6): 2461–2470.
[11] B Leng, D Jin, L Xiong, et al. Estimation of tire-road peak adhesion coefficient for intelligent electric vehicles based on camera and tire dynamics information fusion. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2021, 150: 107275.
[12] M Yu, X Xu, C Wu, et al. Research on the prediction model of the friction coefficient of asphalt pavement based on tire-pavement coupling. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2021: 6650525.
[13] R Matsuzaki, K Kamai, R Seki. Intelligent tires for identifying coefficient of friction of tire/road contact surfaces using three-axis accelerometer. Smart Materials and Structures, 2015, 025010: 1–9.
[14] K Singh, M Arat, S Taheri. An intelligent tire based tire-road friction estimation technique and adaptive wheel slip controller for antilock brake system. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control–Transactions of the ASME, 2013, 135(3): 31002–31002.
[15] S Hong, G Erdogan, K Hedrick, et al. Tyre-road friction coefficient estimation based on tyre sensors and lateral tyre deflection: Modeling, simulations, and experiments. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2013, 51(5): 627–647.
[16] A Niskanen, A Tuononen. Three three-axis IEPE accelerometers on the inner liner of a tire for finding the tire-road friction potential indicators. Sensors, 2015, 15(8): 19251–19263.
[17] M Kim, J Park, S Choi. Road type identification ahead of the tire using D-CNN and reflected ultrasonic signals. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 2021, 22(1): 47–54.
[18] M Ergun, S Iyinam, A F Iyinam. Prediction of road surface friction coefficient using only macro- and microtexture measurements. Journal of Transportation Engineering–ASCE, 2005, 131(4): 311–319.
[19] G Erdogan, L Alexander, R Rajamani. Estimation of tire-road friction coefficient using a novel wireless piezoelectric tire sensor. IEEE Sensors Journal, 2011, 11(2): 267–279.
[20] J H Yoon, S E Li, C Ahn. Estimation of vehicle sideslip angle and tire–road friction coefficient based on magnetometer with GPS. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 2016, 17(3): 427–435.
[21] F Gustafsson. Slip-based tire road friction estimation. Automatica, 1997, 33(6): 1087–1099.
[22] F Gustafsson. Monitoring tire-road friction using the wheel slip. IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 1998, 18(4): 42–49.
[23] K Yi, T Jeong. Observer based estimation of tire-road friction for collision warning algorithm adaptation. JSME International Journal Series C-Mechanical Systems Machine Elements and Manufacturing, 1998, 41(1): 116–124.
[24] K Yi, K Hedrick, S C Lee. Estimation of tire-road friction using observer based identifiers. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1999, 31(4): 233–261.
[25] J M Wang, L Alexander, R Rajamani. Friction estimation on highway vehicles using longitudinal measurements. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control-Transactions of the ASME, 2004, 126(2): 265–275.
[26] R Rajamani, D Piyabongkarn, J Y Lew, et al. Tire-road friction-coefficient estimation. IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 2010, 30(4): 54–69.
[27] D Paul, E Velenis, F Humbert, et al. Tyre-road friction MU-estimation based on braking force distribution. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D-Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2019, 233(8): 2030–2047.
[28] C Lee, K Hedrick, K S Yi. Real-time slip-based estimation of maximum tire-road friction coefficient. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2004, 9(2): 454–458.
[29] K Li, J A Misener, K Hedrick. On-board road condition monitoring system using slip-based tyre-road friction estimation and wheel speed signal analysis. Proceedings of the Institution of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part K-Journal of Multi-Body Dynamics, 2007, 221(1): 129–146.
[30] R. D Castro, R. E Araujo, D Freitas. Real-time estimation of tyre-road friction peak with optimal linear parameterization. IET Control Theory and Applications, 2012, 6(14): 2257–2268.
[31] G J Cui, J L Dou, S S Li, et al. Slip control of electric vehicle based on tire-road friction coefficient estimation. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2017: 3035124.
[32] ]Y Hwang, S B Choi. Adaptive collision avoidance using road friction information. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2019, 20(1): 348–361.
[33] W. L Yong, X Guan, B Wang, et al. Research on the real-time identification approach of longitudinal road slope and maximum road friction coefficient. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2019, 79(1): 18–42.
[34] G L Goodenow, T R Kolhoff, F D Smithson. Tire-road friction measuring system - a second generation. SAE Transactions, 1968, 77: 680005–680246.
[35] M Sjahdanulirwan. An analytical model for the prediction of tyre road friction under braking and cornering. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 1993, 14(1): 78–99.
[36] M Sjahdanulirwan, Q J Yang. Prediction of tyre road friction with an inverted-boat shaped pressure distribution. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1995, 24(2): 145–161.
[37] C. S Liu, H Peng. Road friction coefficient estimation for vehicle path prediction. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1996, 25: 413–425.
[38] S Muller, M Uchanski, K Hedrick. Estimation of the maximum tire–road friction coefficient. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control–Transactions of the ASME, 2003, 125(4): 607–617.
[39] G Erdogan, L Alexander, R Rajamani. Adaptive vibration cancellation for tire–road friction coefficient estimation on winter maintenance vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 2010, 18(5): 1023–1032.
[40] J Pokorski, A Renski, H Sar. System for investigation of friction properties of the road surface. Baltic Journal of Road and Bridge Engineering, 2015, 10(2): 126–131.
[41] J G Yi, L Alvarez, C Claeys, et al. Emergency braking control with an observer-based dynamic tire/road friction model and wheel angular velocity measurement. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2003, 39(2): 81–97.
[42] L Alvarez, J G Yi, R Horowitz, et al. Dynamic friction model-based tire–road friction estimation and emergency braking control. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control–Transactions of the Asme, 2005, 127(1): 22–32.
[43] N Patel, C Edwards, S. K Spurgeon. Tyre–road friction estimation – a comparative study. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2008, 222(12): 2337–2351.
[44] G Baffet, A Charara, G Dherbomez. An observer of tire–road forces and friction for active security vehicle systems. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2007, 12(6): 651–661.
[45] N G Ding, G Z Yu, W D Wang. Estimation of brake pressure and tyre–road friction during ABS activation. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2012, 58(1): 33–45.
[46] X W Zhang, Y Xu, M Pan, et al. A vehicle ABS adaptive sliding–mode control algorithm based on the vehicle velocity estimation and tyre/road friction coefficient estimations. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2014, 52(4): 475–503.
[47] X Xia, L Xiong, K Sun, et al. Estimation of maximum road friction coefficient based on Lyapunov method. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 2016, 17(6): 991–1002.
[48] B Y Li, H P Du, W H Li, et al. Comparative study of vehicle tyre–road friction coefficient estimation with a novel cost-effective method. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2014, 52(8): 1066–1098.
[49] Y Q Zhao, H Q Li, F Lin, et al. Estimation of road friction coefficient in different road conditions based on vehicle braking dynamics. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2017, 30(4): 982–990.
[50] J J Rath, K C Veluvolu, M Defoort. Simultaneous estimation of road profile and tire road friction for automotive vehicle. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2015, 64(10): 4461–4471.
[51] D J Lee, Y S Park. Sliding-mode-based parameter identification with application to tire pressure and tire-road friction. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 2011, 12(4): 571–577.
[52] M Tanelli, L Piroddi, S M Savaresi. Real-time identification of tire-road friction conditions. IET Control Theory and Applications, 2009, 3(7): 891–906.
[53] M Sharifzadeh, A Senatore, A Farnam, et al. A real-time approach to robust identification of tyre-road friction characteristics on mixed-MU roads. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2019, 57(9): 1338–1362.
[54] R Rajamani, G Phanomchoeng, D Piyabongkarn, et al. Algorithms for real-time estimation of individual wheel tire-road friction coefficients. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2012, 17(6): 1183–1195.
[55] S Ko, J Ko, S Lee, et al. A study on the road friction coefficient estimation and motor torque control for an in-wheel electric vehicle. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2015, 229(5): 611–623.
[56] K Han, Y Hwang, E Lee, et al. Robust estimation of maximum tire–road friction coefficient considering road surface irregularity. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 2016, 17(3): 415–425.
[57] J Zhao, J Zhang, B Zhu. Coordinative traction control of vehicles based on identification of the tyre-road friction coefficient. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2016, 230(12): 1585–1604.
[58] K Han, E Lee, M Choi, et al. Adaptive scheme for the real-time estimation of tire-road friction coefficient and vehicle velocity. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 2017, 22(4): 1508–1518.
[59] H Guan, B Wang, P P Lu, et al. Identification of maximum road friction coefficient and optimal slip ratio based on road type recognition. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2014, 27(5): 1018–1026.
[60] C S Kim, J O Hahn, K S Hong, et al. Estimation of tire-road friction based on on-board 6-DOF acceleration measurement. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2015, 64(8): 3368–3377.
[61] K Enisz, I Szalay, G Kohlrusz, et al. Tyre-road friction coefficient estimation based on the discrete-time extended Kalman filter. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2015, 229(9): 1158–1168.
[62] J J Castillo, J A Cabrera, A J Guerra, et al. A novel electrohydraulic brake system with tire-road friction estimation and continuous brake pressure control. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2016, 63(3): 1863–1875.
[63] L R Ray. Nonlinear tire force estimation and road friction identification: Simulation and experiments. Automatica, 1997, 33(10): 1819–1833.
[64] L Chen, M Y Bian, Y G Luo, et al. Tire-road friction coefficient estimation based on the resonance frequency of in-wheel motor drive system. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2016, 54(1): 1–19.
[65] A J C Schmeitz, M Alirezaei. Analysis of wheel speed vibrations for road friction classification. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2016, 54(4): 492–509.
[66] D Paul, E Velenis, D P Cao, et al. Optimal MU–estimation–based regenerative braking strategy for an AWD HEV. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, 2017, 3(1): 249–258.
[67] A Albinsson, F Bruzelius, B Jacobson, et al. Design of tyre force excitation for tyre-road friction estimation. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2017, 55(2): 208–230.
[68] S Yamazaki, O Furukawa, T Suzuki. Study on real time estimation of tire to road friction. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1997, 27: 225–233.
[69] X J Gao, Z P Yu, J Neubeck, et al. Sideslip angle estimation based on input–output linearization with tire-road friction adaptation. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2010, 48(2): 217–234.
[70] R R Wang, J M Wang. Tire-road friction coefficient and tire cornering stiffness estimation based on longitudinal tire force difference generation. Control Engineering Practice, 2013, 21(1): 65–75.
[71] K Wakamatsu, Y Akuta, M Ikegaya, et al. Adaptive yaw rate feedback 4WS with tire/road friction coefficient estimator. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1997, 27(5–6): 305–326.
[72] O Nishihara, K Masahiko. Estimation of road friction coefficient based on the brush model. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control–Transactions of the ASME, 2011, 33(4): 1–9.
[73] C E Beal. Rapid road friction estimation using independent left/right steering torque measurements. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2020, 58(3): 377–403.
[74] J O Hahn, R Rajamani, L Alexander. GPS-based real-time identification of tire-road friction coefficient. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 2002, 10(3): 331–343.
[75] G Erdogan, L Alexander, R Rajamani. Friction coefficient measurement for autonomous winter road maintenance. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2009, 47(4): 497–512.
[76] L Li, H Z Li, J Song, et al. Road friction estimation under complicated maneuver conditions for active yaw control. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2009, 22(4): 514–520.
[77] L Li, J Song, H Z Li, et al. Comprehensive prediction method of road friction for vehicle dynamics control. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2009, 223(D8): 987–1002.
[78] L Li, G Jia, X Ran, et al. A variable structure extended Kalman filter for vehicle sideslip angle estimation on a low friction road. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2014, 52(2): 280–308.
[79] B Kwak, Y Park. Vehicle states observer using adaptive tire–road friction estimator. JSME International Journal Series C–Mechanical Systems Machine Elements and Manufacturing, 2001, 44(3): 668–675.
[80] N G Ding, S Taheri. Application of recursive least square algorithm on estimation of vehicle sideslip angle and road friction. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2010: 242–256.
[81] C F Zong, P Song, D Hu. Estimation of vehicle states and tire-road friction using parallel extended Kalman filtering. Journal of Zhejiang University-Science A, 2011, 12(6): 446–452.
[82] Y Xu, B. Y Chen, C Chi. Estimation of road friction coefficient and vehicle states by 3–DOF dynamic model and HSRI model based on information fusion. Asian Journal of Control, 2018, 20(3): 1067–1076.
[83] J Q Hu, S Rakheja, Y M Zhang. Real-time estimation of tire-road friction coefficient based on lateral vehicle dynamics. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2020, 234(10–11): 2444–2457.
[84] Y H Liu, T Li, Y Y Yang, et al. Estimation of tire-road friction coefficient based on combined APF-IEKF and iteration algorithm. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2017, 88: 25–35.
[85] N G Ding, W Chen, Y P Zhang, et al. An extended Luenberger observer for estimation of vehicle sideslip angle and road friction. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2014, 66(4): 385–414.
[86] W W Chen, D K Tan, L F Zhao. Vehicle sideslip angle and road friction estimation using online gradient descent algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2018, 67(12): 11475–11485.
[87] L T Gao, L Xiong, X F Lin, et al. Multi-sensor fusion road friction coefficient estimation during steering with Lyapunov method. Sensors, 2019, 19(18): 1–17.
[88] L Shao, C Jin, A Eichberger, et al. Grid search based tire-road friction estimation. IEEE Access, 2020, 8: 81506–81525.
[89] L Etienne, C A Lua, S Di Gennaro, et al. A super–twisting controller for active control of ground vehicles with lateral tire–road friction estimation and CarSim validation. International Journal of Control Automation and Systems, 2020, 18(5): 1177–1189.
[90] S Solmaz, S C Baslamisli. Simultaneous estimation of road friction and sideslip angle based on switched multiple non-linear observers. IET Control Theory and Applications, 2012, 6(14): 2235–2247.
[91] L Shao, C Jin, C Lex, et al. A robust road friction estimation during vehicle steering. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2019, 57(4): 493–519.
[92] M Choi, J J Oh, S B Choi. Linearized recursive least squares methods for real-time identification of tire-road friction coefficient. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2013, 62(7): 2906–2918.
[93] T Shim, D Margolis. Model-based road friction estimation. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2004, 41(4): 249–276.
[94] J Villagra, B Andrea-Novel, M Fliess, et al. A diagnosis-based approach for tire-road forces and maximum friction estimation. Control Engineering Practice, 2011, 19(2): 174–184.
[95] C Ahn, H Peng, H E Tseng. Robust estimation of road friction coefficient using lateral and longitudinal vehicle dynamics. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2012, 50(6): 961–985.
[96] H B Ren, S Z Chen, T Shim, et al. Effective assessment of tyre-road friction coefficient using a hybrid estimator. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2014, 52(8): 1047–1065.
[97] Y C Feng, H Chen, H Y Zhao, et al. Road tire friction coefficient estimation for four-wheel drive electric vehicle based on moving optimal estimation strategy. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2020, 139: 1–23.
[98] L Li, K Yang, G Jia, et al. Comprehensive tire-road friction coefficient estimation based on signal fusion method under complex maneuvering operations. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2015, 56–57: 259–276.
[99] L Chen, M. Y Bian, Y G Luo, et al. Real-time identification of the tyre-road friction coefficient using an unscented Kalman filter and mean-square-error-weighted fusion. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2016, 230(6): 788–802.
[100] L Chen, Y G Luo, M Y Bian, et al. Estimation of tire-road friction coefficient based on frequency domain data fusion. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2017, (85): 177–192.
[101] J Zhao, J Zhang, B Zhu. Development and verification of the tire/road friction estimation algorithm for antilock braking system. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2014: 786492.
[102] A K Madhusudhanan, M Corno, M A Arat, et al. Load sensing bearing based road-tyre friction estimation considering combined tyre slip. Mechatronics, 2016, (39): 136–146.
[103] C F Zong, D Hu, H Y Zheng. Dual extended Kalman filter for combined estimation of vehicle state and road friction. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2013, 26(2): 313–324.
[104] Z. Q Qi, S Taheri, B. F Wang, et al. Estimation of the tyre-road maximum friction coefficient and slip slope based on a novel tyre model. Vehicle System Dynamics, 2015, 53(4): 506–525.
[105] B Huang, X Fu, S Wu, et al. Calculation algorithm of tire-road friction coefficient based on limited-memory adaptive extended Kalman filter. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2019: 1056269.
[106] ]T Nakatsuji, I Hayashi, P Ranjitkar, et al. Online estimation of friction coefficients of winter road surfaces using the unscented Kalman filter. Transportation Research Record, 2007, 2015: 113–122.
[107] X Y Ping, S Cheng, W Yue, et al. Adaptive estimations of tyre-road friction coefficient and body's sideslip angle based on strong tracking and interactive multiple model theories. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part D–Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2020: 1–15.
[108] C F Chen, Y M Jia, Y L Wang, et al. Non-linear velocity observer for vehicles with tyre-road friction estimation. International Journal of Systems Science, 2018, 49(7): 1403–1418.
[109] Y Peng, J Chen, Y Ma. Observer-based estimation of velocity and tire–road friction coefficient for vehicle control systems. Nonlinear Dynamics, 2019, 96(1): 363–387.
[110] A Zareian, S Azadi, R Kazemi. Estimation of road friction coefficient using extended Kalman filter, recursive least square, and neural network. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part K–Journal of Multi-Body Dynamics, 2016, 230(1): 52–68.
[111] W R Pasterkamp, H B Pacejka. Optimal design of neural networks for estimation of tyre/road friction. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1998, 29: 312–321.
[112] N Takashi, H Ikuko, K Akira, et al. Inverse estimation of friction coefficients of winter road surfaces – New considerations of lateral movements and angular movements. Maintenance Management and Operations Services, 2005, 1911(1): 149–159.
[113] X D Zhang, D Gohlich. A hierarchical estimator development for estimation of tire–road friction coefficient. Plos One, 2017, 12(2): 1–21.
[114] A M Ribeiro, A Moutinho, A R Fioravanti, et al. Estimation of tire–road friction for road vehicles: A time delay neural network approach. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 2020, 42(4): 1–12.
[115] Z Y Pu, Z Y Cui, S Wang, et al. Time-aware gated recurrent unit networks for forecasting road surface friction using historical data with missing values. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 2020, 14(4): 213–219.
[116] E Sabanovic, V Zuraulis, O Prentkovskis, et al. Identification of road-surface type using deep neural networks for friction coefficient estimation. Sensors, 2020, 20(3): 1–17.
[117] Z Y Pu, C L Liu, X M Shi, et al. Road surface friction prediction using long short–term memory neural network based on historical data. Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2020: 1–12.
Outlines

/